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Table of Contents Roma and Egyptians in Albania : From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion by De Soto, Hermine; Beddies, Sabine; Gedeshi, Ilir Terms of Use Foreword p. ix Acknowledgments p. xi Acronyms and Abbreviations p. xiii Glossary of Terms p. xv A Roma Folk-Tale: The Cup of Gold Coins p. xvii Executive Summary p. xix Objectives of the Study p. xix Albanian Roma in a Regional Perspective p. xix Historical Background p. xxi Methodology p. xxiii Findings p. xxv Summary of Short-Term and Most Urgent Policy Recommendations p. xli 1 Introduction p. 1 Objectives and Methodology p. 2 2 Historical Background: The Diversity of Roma and Egyptians p. 7 The Origins of Roma and Egyptians p. 7 A Brief History of Albania p. 8 The Interwar Period p. 8 World War II p. 10 The Socialist Era p. 10 Transition p. 12 Conclusion p. 13 3 Culture p. 15 Language p. 15 Expressions of Culture and Identity p. 16 Family Ceremonies p. 18 The Roma Fis p. 21 Specific Roles of the Fis Leader p. 23 Changes in the Social Organization of the Roma Fis over Time p. 24 Conclusion p. 24 4 Marriage and Family Planning p. 27 Formal and Informal Family-Planning Education p. 30 Effects of Early Marriage and Childbearing p. 30 Increasing Divorce Rates p. 31 Conclusion p. 33 5 Income and Living Standards p. 35 Household Income p. 36 Household Expenditures p. 39 Living Conditions p. 41 Infrastructure p. 44 Health and Health Care p. 47 Conclusions p. 50 6 Education p. 53 Decreasing Education Levels p. 54 Barriers to Education p. 56 Parents' Suggestions for Improving Education for Roma Children p. 60 Conclusions p. 61 7 The Labor Market p. 63 Traditional Socio-Occupational Identities p. 64 Forms of Formal Labor p. 68 Forms of Informal Labor p. 69 Conclusion p. 72 8 Migration and Remmittances p. 73 Origins of International Migration p. 74 Host Countries and Regions p. 79 Forms of International Migration p. 80 Effects of International Migration p. 84 Conclusion p. 85 9 Prostitution and Trafficking p. 87 Prostitution p. 87 Causes of Prostitution p. 89 The Effects of Prostitution: Remittances and Social and Economic Costs p. 91 Trafficking of Children p. 93 Trafficking of Drugs p. 97 Conclusion p. 98 10 Social Capital p. 101 Definitions p. 102 Cognitive Social Capital: Trust and Solidarity p. 103 Structural Social Capital p. 109 Implications of Social Capital p. 111 Conclusion p. 113 11 Social Exclusion p. 115 Albanian Roma Within a Regional Perspective p. 116 Summary of Findings p. 118 Causes of Social Exclusion Identified by Roma and Egyptians p. 121 Definitions of Relative Poverty p. 122 Factors Contributing to Uncertainty and Vulnerability p. 125 Perceptions of Roma and Egyptians about Discrimination p. 129 Perceptions of Albanians about Roma and Egyptians p. 130 Ways of Addressing Social Exclusion According to Roma and Egyptians p. 131 12 Social Inclusion: Recommendations and Policy Implications p. 133 Access to Public Goods and Services p. 134 Market Opportunities and Employment p. 137 Access to the Justice System p. 139 Access to Information p. 140 Safety and Security of Livelihoods p. 140 Social Capital, Voice, and Participation p. 141 Roma Cultural Centers as a Means for Social Inclusion p. 141 Summary of Short-Term and Most Urgent Policy Recommendations p. 142 Appendixes A Working Definitions p. 147 B Questionnaire on Needs Assessment of Roma and Egyptian Communities in Albania p. 153 C Focus Group Discussions p. 177 D Statistical Data, Tables, Graphs, and Flowcharts p. 187 E More Voices of Albania p. 199 F Selected Albanian Roma and Egyptian NGOs and Contact Information p. 219 G The Patrilineal Kinship Structure of One Roma Fis p. 221 H National Minorities in Albania p. 223 I "The List" p. 225 J Community Profiles p. 227 K From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion p. 237 L Analytical Framework p. 247 M Conference Agenda p. 249 N Dissemination Conference Material p. 257 Bibliography p. 261 Materials Used in Desk Review p. 265 Map List of Figures 1 From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion-Analytical Framework p. xxvi 2 Distribution of Identified Poverty Categories among Roma, Egyptians, and Albanians p. xxvii 3.1 Characteristics that Distinguish Roma or Egyptian Culture from Albanian Culture p. 16 6.1 Illiteracy Rates for Roma and Egyptians, by Gender and Age Group p. 54 7.1 Employment Sectors during Socialism for Roma, By Gender p. 65 7.2 Employment Sectors during Socialism for Egyptians, By Gender p. 65 8.1 Host Countries to Which Roma and Egyptians Migrate p. 79 8.2 Informal Labor Sectors for Roma and Egyptians Migrating Abroad p. 82 10.1 Trust of Roma and Egyptians in Their Neighbors p. 104 10.2 Trust of the Roma and Egyptian Communities in Roma and Egyptian Associations p. 110 11.1 Distribution of Identified Poverty Categories among Roma, Egyptians, and Albanians p. 123 11.2 Levels of Discrimination Experienced by Roma, According to District p. 129 11.3 Levels of Discrimination Experienced by Egyptians, According to District p. 130 D.1 Education Structure for Roma, by Gender and Age Group p. 190 D.2 Education Structure for Egyptians, by Gender and Age Group p. 190 D.3 Reasons Why Children Do Not Go to School p. 191 D.4 Main Employment Sectors for Roma and Egyptians During Transition p. 192 D.5 International Migration of Egyptians by District p. 193 D.6 International Migration of Roma by District p. 194 D.7 Informal Labor Sectors for International Migrating Roma Fise p. 195 D.8 Migration and Remittances as Poverty Trap p. 196 D.9 Prostitution as a Downward Spiral into Poverty p. 197 D.10 Children Are Obligated to Beg for Their Family, Roma, and Egyptians by District p. 197 List of Tables 1 Distribution of Roma Population 1991-94 (thousands) p. xx 2 Estimated Population of Albanian Roma and Egyptians, by District p. xxiv 3 From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion Matrix of Exclusion Manifestations and Recommendations for Inclusion Policies and Actions p. xxxiii 4 Summary of Short-Term and Most Urgent Policy Recommendations p. xli 4.1 Marriage Ages for Roma, Egyptians, and Total Albanian Population during Transition p. 28 4.2 Ages of Roma and Egyptians at Birth of Their First Child p. 28 4.3 Average Roma and Egyptian Family Sizes, by Zone p. 30 5.1 Average Income through State Assistance for Roma and Egyptian Households (in percentages) p. 37 5.2 Average Monthly Household Expenditures for Roma and Egyptians (in US$) p. 40 5.3 Surface Area of Homes, by Ethnicity p. 44 5.4 Type of Appliance/Furnishing Available to Roma and Egyptians, by Amount (quantity), and Ownership (percentage) p. 45 6.1 Illiteracy Rates and School Years Completed for Roma and Egyptians Ages 7-20, by District p. 55 8.1 Length and Cost for Initial Trave p. 76 8.2 The Role of Financial and Social Capital in the Different Stages of International Migration p. 78 9.1 Daily Income of Trafficked Children p. 93 11.1 Distribution of Roma Population 1991-94 (thousands) p. 116 11.2 Self-Assessment of Family's Socioeconomic Conditions p. 122 11.3 Albanian Perceptions of Roma/Egyptians p. 131 12.1 Summary of Short-Term and Most Urgent Policy Recommendations p. 143 D.1 Monthly Income for Roma and Egyptian Households (US$), by Source page